Lecturer : Adieli Laoli, S.Pd, M.Pd
Curriculum and Material Development
PIETERSON HAREFA
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT – A
THE FOURTH GRADE
IKIP GUNUNGSITOLI
SITUATION ANALYSIS
Ω A language curriculum is a function of the interrelationship that hold between subject-specific concerns and other broader factors embracing socio-political and philosophical matters, educational value system, theory and practice in curriculum design, teacher experiential wisdom and learner motivation.
Ω Situation analysis is an analysis of factors in the content of a planned or present curriculum project that is made in order to assess their potential impact on the project.
Ω Kinds of factors that can have an impact on the success of a curriculum project and emphasize the importance of determining the potential influence of such factors on the implementation of a curriculum change such as societal factors, project factors, institutional factors, teacher factors, learner factors, and adoption factors.
Ω Procedures used in situation analysis are similar to those involved in needs analysis, namely :
o Consultation with representatives of as many relevant groups as possible, such as parents, students, teachers, administrators, and government officials.
o Study and analysis of relevant documents, such as course appraisal documents, government reports, ministry of education guidelines and policy papers, teaching materials, curriculum documents.
o Observation of teachers and students in relevant learning setting.
o Surveys of opinions of relevant parties
o Review of available literature related to the issue
Societal Factors
Ω Second or foreign language teaching is a fact of life in almost every country in the world. Yet countries differ greatly in terms of the role of foreign languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational traditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that members of the community have for language teaching and learning.
Ω The position of foreign language in the school curriculum is neither strong nor secure.
Ω In examining the impact of societal factors on language teaching, therefore, the aims is to determine the impact of groups in the community or society at large on the program. These groups include: policy makers in government, educational and other government officials, employers, the business community, politicians, tertiary education specialist, educational organizations, parents, citizens, and students.
Ω In the case of project of community or national scope, questions which is need to determine :
o Language teaching policies
o The underlying reasons for the project
o The impact on different sectors of society.
o Language teaching experience and tradition exist in the country
o View of public to second language and second language teaching
o Academics and teacher trainers
o View of parents and students
o View of employers and the business community
o Community resources
Project Factors
Ω Curriculum projects are typically produced by a team of people.
Ω Projects are completed under different constrains of time, resources, and personnel, and each of these variables can have a significant impact on a project.
Ω The following project factors need to be considered :
o Who constitutes the project group and how are they selected?
o What are the management and other responsibilities of the team?
o The goals and procedures determined
o Who reviews the progress of the project and the performance of its members?
o Experience that members of team can have
o Wow do members of the team regard each other?
o Resources that they have
o The time frame of project
Institutional Factors
Ω A language teaching program is typically delivered in an institution such as a university, school, or language institute. Different types of institutions create their own “culture,” that is, settings where people interact and where patterns emergence for communication, decision making, reole relations, and conduct.
Ω A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups and departments, sometimes functioning in unison, sometimes with different components functioning independently, or sometimes with components in a confrontational relationship.
Ω Institution factors are determined of questions about :
o Leadership
o School’s physical resources including classroom facilities, media, and other technological resources, and library resources.
o Role of the textbooks and other instructional materials
o Staff morale like among English teacher
o Problem that teacher should face
o Administrative support
o How committed is the institution to attaining excellence?
Teacher Factors
Ω Teachers are key factor in the successful implementation of curriculum change.
Ω In any institution, teacher may vary according to the following dimensions: language proficiency, teaching experience, skill and expertise, training and qualifications, morale and motivation, teaching style, and beliefs and principles.
Ω The following teacher factors need to be considered :
o Kinds of teachers currently teach in the target schools, their typical background, training, experience, and motivation.
o Their proficient in English
o What kinds of belief to the teachers typically hold concerning key issues in teaching?
o What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources do they make us of?
o Teaching methods that teachers use
o What benefits are the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, or materials likely to offer teachers?
Learner Factors
Ω Learners are the key participants in the curriculum developments projects and it is essential to collect as much information as possible about them before the project begins.
Ω Among relevant learner factors therefore are following :
o Experience of learners’ language
o Their motivation to learn English
o Their expectation for the program
o Are they homogeneous or heterogeneous group?
o Type of learning approach that they favor
o Type of content that they prefer
o Their expectations they have for the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials
o The time they can be expected
o Learning resources they have to access
Adoption Factors
Ω The following teacher factors need to be considered :
o The advantages of curriculum change
o Is the innovation perceived to be more advantageous than current practices?
o Is the innovation very complicated and difficult to understand?
o Has it been used and tested out in some schools before all schools are expected to use it?
o Have the features and benefits of the innovation been clearly communicated to teachers and institutions?
o How clear and practical is it?
Ω A methodology that can readily be turned into teaching materials and textbooks will generally be easier to adopt than one that exist only as a set guidelines.
Ω The goal of situation analysis is to identify key factors that might positively or negatively affect the implementation of a curriculum plan. This is sometimes known as a SWOT analysis because it involves an examination of “a language program’s internal strength and weaknesses in addition to external opportunities and threats to the existence or successful operation of the language program”.
Senin, 25 Mei 2009
The origin of Language curriculum development
Harold Palmer, the prominent British applied linguist who laid the foundation for the structure method in the 1920s, summarized the principles of language teaching methodology at that time as follows:
1. Initial Preparation – orienting the students towards language learning
2. Habit-forming – establishing correct habits.
3. Accuracy – avoiding inaccurate language
4. Gradation – each stage prepares the student for the next
5. Proportion – each aspect of language given emphasis
6. Concreteness – movement from the concrete to the abstract
7. Interest – arousing the student’s interest at all times
8. Order of progression – hearing before speaking, and both before writing
9. Multiple line of approach – many different ways used to teach the language.
This came to be known as the problem of selection. Mackey (1965, 161) comments: selection is an inherent Characteristic of all methods. Since it is impossible to teach the whole of language, all methods must in some way or other, whether intentionally or not, select the part of it they intend to teach.” The field of selection in language teaching deals with the choice of appropriate units of the language for teaching purposes and with the development of techniques and procedures by which the language can be reduced to that which is most useful to the learner (Mackey 1965). All teaching, of course, demands choice of what will be taught from the total field of the subject, and the teaching of a language at any level and under any circumstances requires the selection of certain features of the language and the intentional or unintentional exclusion of other. Two aspects of selection received primary attention in the first few decades of the twentieth century: vocabulary selection and grammar selection. Approaches to these aspects of selection laid to the foundation for syllabus design in language teaching
B. VOCABULARY SELECTION
Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of the first things applied linguist turned their attention to. The issue of vocabulary selection is that not all words that native speakers known are useful for language learners who have only a limited time available for learning. In this case, native speakers are thought to have a recognition vocabulary about 17.000 words. How many words that should be student known? It depends on objectives of the course and the amount of time available for teaching. In vocabulary selection, word frequencies are important in planning word lists for language teaching.
The most frequent words occurring in samples of sports writing will not be same as those occurring in fiction. Other important things especially in determining vocabulary or word lists, such as:
Teachability : by following Direct Method or a method such as Total Physical Response. In this case, concrete vocabulary is taught early on because it can be illustrated easily through pictures or demonstration.
Similarity : some items may be selected because they are similar to words in the native language. For example, English and French have many cognates such as table, page, notion, etc and this may justify in their inclusion of word list for French-speaking learners.
Availability : some words may not be frequent but are readily available in the sense that they come quickly to mind when certain topics are thought of. For example, classroom calls to mind desk, chair, teacher, and pupil, and these words can be useful and be worth teaching early in a course.
Coverage : Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may also be useful. For example, seat might be taught because it includes other meaning like stool, bench, and chair.
Defining Power : some words could be selected because they are useful in defining other words, even though they are the most frequent words in a language. For example, container might be useful because it can help define bucket, jar, and carton.
C. GRAMMAR SELECTION AND GRADATION
In regard to teaching English, from the 1930s applied linguist began to apply principles of selection to design of gramatical syllabuses. In grammar, selection has closely relation to the issue of gradation. Gradatio is concerne with the grouping and sequencing of teaching items in syllabus. A grammatical syllabus specifies both the set of gramatical structure to be taught and the order in which they should be taught.
The gramatical material must be graded, in accordance with the principles of gradation. The principles as basis for developing gramamatical sylabuses :
1. Simplicity and Centrality
In English learning, we will choose structure that are simple and more central to the basic srtructure of the language than those that are complex and peripheral. These criteria would occure in an introductory level-English course.
2. Learnability
Grammar syllabuses should take in to account the order of grammatical items are found in second language learning. Example, second language learner at different proficiency level:
• Noun
• Verbs
• Adjectives
• Verb be
• Possessive Pronouns
• Personal Pronouns
• Adverb of time
• Request
• Simple Present
• Future
• WH – Question
• Present Continous
• Direction
• Possessive Adjective
• Comperatives
• Offers
• Simple Future
• Simple Past
• Infinitives-gerund
• First conditinal
The approaches to gradation :
1. Linguistic Distance : Structure that are similar to those in the native language should be taught first. This as assumption underlay the approach to language comparison know as Contrastive Analysis
2. Intrinssic Difficulty : this principles argues that simple structure should be taught before complex one and is the commonest criteria used to justify the sequence of grammatical items in a syllabus.
3. communicative need : some strutures will be needed early on and can’t be postponed despite their difficulty, such as the Simple Past in English, since it is difficulty to avoid making reference to past event for very long in a course.
4. Frequency : The frequency of occurrence of structures anf grammatical items in the target language may also affect the order in which they appear in a syllabus, although as we noted, little information of this sort is available to syllabus planners. Frequency may also compete with other criteria.
In addition to these factor namely, a linear or a cylical or Spiral Gradation. With a linear gradation, the items are introduced one at a time and practiced intensively before the next items appear eith a cylical gradation, items are reintroduced throuhout the course.
Assumptions Underlying Early Approaches to Syllabus Design
1. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar
2. Learners everywhere have the same needs
3. Learners’ needs are identified exclusively in terms of language needs
4. The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook
5. The context of teaching is English as a foreign language.
1. Initial Preparation – orienting the students towards language learning
2. Habit-forming – establishing correct habits.
3. Accuracy – avoiding inaccurate language
4. Gradation – each stage prepares the student for the next
5. Proportion – each aspect of language given emphasis
6. Concreteness – movement from the concrete to the abstract
7. Interest – arousing the student’s interest at all times
8. Order of progression – hearing before speaking, and both before writing
9. Multiple line of approach – many different ways used to teach the language.
This came to be known as the problem of selection. Mackey (1965, 161) comments: selection is an inherent Characteristic of all methods. Since it is impossible to teach the whole of language, all methods must in some way or other, whether intentionally or not, select the part of it they intend to teach.” The field of selection in language teaching deals with the choice of appropriate units of the language for teaching purposes and with the development of techniques and procedures by which the language can be reduced to that which is most useful to the learner (Mackey 1965). All teaching, of course, demands choice of what will be taught from the total field of the subject, and the teaching of a language at any level and under any circumstances requires the selection of certain features of the language and the intentional or unintentional exclusion of other. Two aspects of selection received primary attention in the first few decades of the twentieth century: vocabulary selection and grammar selection. Approaches to these aspects of selection laid to the foundation for syllabus design in language teaching
B. VOCABULARY SELECTION
Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of the first things applied linguist turned their attention to. The issue of vocabulary selection is that not all words that native speakers known are useful for language learners who have only a limited time available for learning. In this case, native speakers are thought to have a recognition vocabulary about 17.000 words. How many words that should be student known? It depends on objectives of the course and the amount of time available for teaching. In vocabulary selection, word frequencies are important in planning word lists for language teaching.
The most frequent words occurring in samples of sports writing will not be same as those occurring in fiction. Other important things especially in determining vocabulary or word lists, such as:
Teachability : by following Direct Method or a method such as Total Physical Response. In this case, concrete vocabulary is taught early on because it can be illustrated easily through pictures or demonstration.
Similarity : some items may be selected because they are similar to words in the native language. For example, English and French have many cognates such as table, page, notion, etc and this may justify in their inclusion of word list for French-speaking learners.
Availability : some words may not be frequent but are readily available in the sense that they come quickly to mind when certain topics are thought of. For example, classroom calls to mind desk, chair, teacher, and pupil, and these words can be useful and be worth teaching early in a course.
Coverage : Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may also be useful. For example, seat might be taught because it includes other meaning like stool, bench, and chair.
Defining Power : some words could be selected because they are useful in defining other words, even though they are the most frequent words in a language. For example, container might be useful because it can help define bucket, jar, and carton.
C. GRAMMAR SELECTION AND GRADATION
In regard to teaching English, from the 1930s applied linguist began to apply principles of selection to design of gramatical syllabuses. In grammar, selection has closely relation to the issue of gradation. Gradatio is concerne with the grouping and sequencing of teaching items in syllabus. A grammatical syllabus specifies both the set of gramatical structure to be taught and the order in which they should be taught.
The gramatical material must be graded, in accordance with the principles of gradation. The principles as basis for developing gramamatical sylabuses :
1. Simplicity and Centrality
In English learning, we will choose structure that are simple and more central to the basic srtructure of the language than those that are complex and peripheral. These criteria would occure in an introductory level-English course.
2. Learnability
Grammar syllabuses should take in to account the order of grammatical items are found in second language learning. Example, second language learner at different proficiency level:
• Noun
• Verbs
• Adjectives
• Verb be
• Possessive Pronouns
• Personal Pronouns
• Adverb of time
• Request
• Simple Present
• Future
• WH – Question
• Present Continous
• Direction
• Possessive Adjective
• Comperatives
• Offers
• Simple Future
• Simple Past
• Infinitives-gerund
• First conditinal
The approaches to gradation :
1. Linguistic Distance : Structure that are similar to those in the native language should be taught first. This as assumption underlay the approach to language comparison know as Contrastive Analysis
2. Intrinssic Difficulty : this principles argues that simple structure should be taught before complex one and is the commonest criteria used to justify the sequence of grammatical items in a syllabus.
3. communicative need : some strutures will be needed early on and can’t be postponed despite their difficulty, such as the Simple Past in English, since it is difficulty to avoid making reference to past event for very long in a course.
4. Frequency : The frequency of occurrence of structures anf grammatical items in the target language may also affect the order in which they appear in a syllabus, although as we noted, little information of this sort is available to syllabus planners. Frequency may also compete with other criteria.
In addition to these factor namely, a linear or a cylical or Spiral Gradation. With a linear gradation, the items are introduced one at a time and practiced intensively before the next items appear eith a cylical gradation, items are reintroduced throuhout the course.
Assumptions Underlying Early Approaches to Syllabus Design
1. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar
2. Learners everywhere have the same needs
3. Learners’ needs are identified exclusively in terms of language needs
4. The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook
5. The context of teaching is English as a foreign language.
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