PIETERSON HAREFA

IKIP GUNUNGSITOLI

METHODOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

    

Related link : TEFL/TESL

 

Principle of Grammar Translation Method:

1. Grammar rules are presented and studied explicitly. Grammar is taught deductively and then practiced through translation exercises.
   
2. The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing.
   
3. Hardly any attention is paid to speaking and listening skills.
   
4. Teacher correction is the only one way to make students produce the right forms of the foreign language.
   
5. The goal of foreign language learning is the ability to understand the texts written in the foreign language.
   
6. Mastering the grammar of the foreign language is essential in order for students to understand the written target language
   
7. Vocabulary is learn from bilingual word lists
   
8. The mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction
   
9. A paramount use of translation exercise is given
   

 

Procedures of Grammar Translation Method :

1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language
   
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words
   
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given
   
4. Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
   
5. Reading of difficult classical text is begun clearly
   
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis
   
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language in to the mother tongue
   
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation
   
9. The focus is on accuracy, and not fluency
   

 

Principle of Direct Method:

1. Grammar is taught by situation and through inductive process
   
2. The syllabus is based on situations and related to everyday vocabulary and structure
   
3. Grammar and vocabulary is taught orally
   
4. Concrete meanings are made clear by presenting physical objects and abstract ones through association of ideas, not trough translation
   
5. Repetition of new material is encouraged to make language learners acquire the language naturally
   
6. Listening and imitating sounds are drilled so that language learners become automatic in producing the sounds
   
7. Language learners learn the target language in the class most of the time
   
8. Sounds of the target language are essential and presented at the beginning of the course
   
9. Reading follows listening and speaking, and the reading texts are based on the materials of the two skills
   
10. Many new items are presented in the lesson in order to make the target language
    

Procedure of Direct Method :

1. Each student has a reading passage in front of him/her
   
2. The students are called on one by one and they read the text loudly
   
3. After the students finish reading the passage, they are asked in the target language if they have questions
   
4. The teacher answers the students' questions in the target language.
   
5. The teacher works with the students on the pronunciation
   
6. The teacher gives questions to the students and the questions and statements are about the students in the classroom
   
7. The students make up their own questions and statements and direct them to other students in the classroom
   
8. The teacher instructs the students to run to an exercise in the lesson which asks them to fill in blanks
   
9. The students read a sentence out loud and supply the missing word as they are reading
   

 

 

Principles of Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)

1. Language learners are able to comprehend the foreign language when it is spoken at normal speed and concerned with ordinary matter
   
2. Language learners are able to speak in acceptable pronunciation and grammatical correctness
   
3. Language learners have no difficulties in comprehending printed materials
   
4. Language learners are able to write with acceptable standards of correctness of topics within their experiences
   

 

Procedures of Audi Lingual Method (ALM)

1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for oral communication
   
2. Writing and printing are graphic representation of the spoken language
   
3. Language can be broken down on three major component parts: the sound system, the structure, and the vocabulary
   
4. The only authority for correctness is actual use of native speakers
   
5. One cal learn to speak and understand a language only being exposed to the spoken language and by using the spoken language
   
6. Language can be learnt inductively for some easily than deductively
   
7. Grammar should never be taught as an and in itself, but only as a means to the end of learning the language
   
8. Use of the students' native language in class should be avoided or kept minimum in second language teaching
   
9. The structure to which the students are exposed to should always sound natural to native speaker
   
10. All structural material should be presented and practiced in class before the students attempt to study it at home
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a broad approach to teaching that resulted from a focus on communication as the organizing principle for teaching rather than a focus on mastery of the grammatical system of the language. The aim of CLT is :

1. To make communicative competence the goal of language teaching
   
2. To develop procedures for teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the independence of language and communication.
   

Larsen-Freeman names CLT in Communicative Approach. CLT views language as a functional system. It holds that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

 

Principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

1. The main goal is communicative competence.
   
2. Meaning is paramount.
   
3. Language learning is to communicative.
   
4. Effective communication is sought.
   
5. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
   
6. Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.
   
7. Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with language.
   
8. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
   
9. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
   
10. Grammar rules are explained when necessary (less systematically)
    
11. Errors are seen as the natural outcome of the development of communication skills.
    
12. Teachers' role is as a facilitator that manages the classroom communicative activities, while students' role is as communicators.
    

 

Procedures in Teaching Language through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

1. Whenever possible language as it is used in real context should be introduced.
   
2. The target language is vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study.
   
3. Students should work with language at the discourse level.
   
4. Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.
   
5. One of the teacher's major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote communication.
   
6. The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the utterances.
   

The teacher acts as an advisor during communicative activities.

 

The Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching

• Lack of role for L1.
  
• Lack of structure (not good for some students).
  
• The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach does not cater to learners who come from cultures with traditional educational systems and different learning styles.
  
• These students may not see the value in learning English through group work, games and activities and feel that they are 'wasting their time' because there isn't a strong emphasis on grammar.
  
• CLT does not focus on error correction.
  
• These students cannot see the value of CLT, become de-motivated and are often reluctant to participate in activities.
  
• The approach does not focus on error reduction but instead creates a situation where learners are left using their own devices to solve their communication problems.
  
• The CLT approach is great for Intermediate –Advanced learners.
  

 

THE SILENT WAY

The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Cattegno. In this method, the teacher should talk as little as possible and should encourage the learner to speak as much as possible. Mistakes are considered part of the process of discovering the rules, and the teacher should not interfere in this process by correcting the learner's mistakes.
A language teacher should encourage learners to take a role in learning activities. The time of learning teaching interaction should be given to language learner, not to the teacher. The skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing reinforce one another. Consequently, language teacher has to consider these four skills in dealing with the language materials. The whole of process of correcting errors is that learners are first given the opportunity to figure out the error, peer correction, and then teacher correction.

Principles of Silent Way

1. The teacher should give only what help is necessary.
   
2. Language learners are intelligent and bring with them the experience of already learning a language.
   
3. Students need to develop their own "inner criteria" for correctness-to trust and to be responsible for their own production in the target language.
   
4. The teacher works with the students while the students work on the language.
   
5. Language is not learned by repeating after a model.
   
6. If the teacher praises (or criticizes) students, they will be less self-reliant. The teacher's actions can interfere with students' developing their own criteria.
   
7. Student attention is a key to learning.
   
8. Language is for self-expression.
   
9. The syllabus is composed of linguistic structures.
   
10. The skills of speaking, reading, and writing reinforce one another.
    
11. Students should receive a great deal of meaningful practice without repetition.
    

 

 

Procedures of Silent Way

A Silent way lesson typically follows a standard format. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. Depending on student level, the class might work on sounds, phrases, or even sentences. This method begins by introducing the sounds of the target language before attaching them to meanings to prepare learners to learn the target language. The skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing reinforce one another. Language is a substitute for experience. So, it gives meaning to the target language. The teacher functions as a guide, an organizer, a resource, and evaluator. Language learners have to learn the target language from other learners, as well as their teacher, since utterances from other learners can be models of target language. In this method, memorization and repetition are avoided. The ways of correcting learner's error in term of who corrects the errors: first, the learner who made the error; second, other learner in the class; and last the teacher.

 

 

 

 

NATURAL APPROACH

 

As the name implies, the Natural Approach (Krashen, S. & Terrell, T. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom, 1983) focuses on developing
language skills in a natural context. Students acquire language through interaction in
authentic and meaningful learning experiences. Teachers provide input in the target
language that students can understand. Teachers begin with language input that can be
made comprehensible through modeling and visuals and continue to add new learning to
that base. In the Natural Approach the emphasis is on the exposure of the target language. The exposure is often called input. The Natural Approach is meant to provide comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985:14). This can be done by discussing topics of interest, games, tasks, and the like. In learning teaching process, language learners may respond in either the first or second language. Language teachers do not concentrate on learner's errors and their errors are not corrected.

 

Principles of the Natural Approach

• Comprehension precedes production. Students are not asked to repeat or produce language until they are comfortable and begin to do so naturally.
  
• Production emerges in stages.
  
• A syllabus based on communicative goals is more effective. The instructional focus is on meaning rather than correct form in early stages.
  

• The student's anxiety level must be low in order for learning to take place.
  
• Communication is as the primary function of language.
  

Procedures of the Natural Approach

1. Teacher creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting and friendly.
   
2. Start with TPR (Total Physical Response) commands.
   
3. Use TPR to teach names of body parts and to introduce numbers and sequence.
   
4. Use name of physical characteristic and clothing to identify members of the class by name.
   
5. Use visuals, typically magazine picture, to introduce new vocabulary.
   
6. Combine use of pictures with TPR
   
7. Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture being described.
   

 

Advantages of the Natural Approach

• It incorporates both lexical and grammatical acquisition.
  
• It clarifies the relationship between comprehension and speed.
  
• It differentiates between acquired and learned knowledge
  

 

Disadvantages of the Natural Approach

• These students may not see the value in learning English through group work, games and activities and feel that they are 'wasting their time' because there isn't a strong emphasis on grammar.
  
• Does not focus on error correction.
  

Not all language teachers have English performance which enables them to communicate in the target language

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SUGGESTOPEDIA

Suggestopedia is a method of teaching a foreign language in which students learn quickly by being made to feel relaxed, interested, and positive. This method is developed by Georgi Lazanov. In his method, he believes that language learning can be made more efficient if the psychological barriers to learning are lowered. He believes that learners raise these barriers and limit themselves because of a fear of failure. The original method cannot be separated from the use of yoga, hypnotizing, and music. The method considers the function of analytical, linear left hemisphere of the brain and that of the intuitive, spatially responsive right hemisphere in a relaxed way which results in accelerated and highly motivated learning. The potentials of the brain can be activated by using music. Originally, the method cannot be separated from classical music, yoga, and parapsychology.

 

Principles of Suggestopedia

1. Learning is characterized by joy and the absence of tension.
   
2. Learning takes place on both a conscious and unconscious level.
   
3. The learner's reserve potential can be tapped through sugeestion.
   

 

 

Procedures of Suggestopedia

1. Great attention is paid to environment
   
2. The seating is as comfortable as possible, the lighting is not harsh, and music plays in the background.
   
3. Suggestopedia teacher's tone is always calm as students are reassured that language learning is easy and fun.
   
4. At the beginning of the lesson the teacher briefly presents the vocabulary and grammar.
   
5. If there is the text, the teacher read it while music plays in the background.
   
6. The students relax and listen.
   

 

Situational analysis

Lecturer : Adieli Laoli, S.Pd, M.Pd
Curriculum and Material Development
PIETERSON HAREFA
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT – A
THE FOURTH GRADE
IKIP GUNUNGSITOLI

SITUATION ANALYSIS
Ω A language curriculum is a function of the interrelationship that hold between subject-specific concerns and other broader factors embracing socio-political and philosophical matters, educational value system, theory and practice in curriculum design, teacher experiential wisdom and learner motivation.
Ω Situation analysis is an analysis of factors in the content of a planned or present curriculum project that is made in order to assess their potential impact on the project.
Ω Kinds of factors that can have an impact on the success of a curriculum project and emphasize the importance of determining the potential influence of such factors on the implementation of a curriculum change such as societal factors, project factors, institutional factors, teacher factors, learner factors, and adoption factors.
Ω Procedures used in situation analysis are similar to those involved in needs analysis, namely :
o Consultation with representatives of as many relevant groups as possible, such as parents, students, teachers, administrators, and government officials.
o Study and analysis of relevant documents, such as course appraisal documents, government reports, ministry of education guidelines and policy papers, teaching materials, curriculum documents.
o Observation of teachers and students in relevant learning setting.
o Surveys of opinions of relevant parties
o Review of available literature related to the issue
Societal Factors
Ω Second or foreign language teaching is a fact of life in almost every country in the world. Yet countries differ greatly in terms of the role of foreign languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational traditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that members of the community have for language teaching and learning.
Ω The position of foreign language in the school curriculum is neither strong nor secure.
Ω In examining the impact of societal factors on language teaching, therefore, the aims is to determine the impact of groups in the community or society at large on the program. These groups include: policy makers in government, educational and other government officials, employers, the business community, politicians, tertiary education specialist, educational organizations, parents, citizens, and students.



Ω In the case of project of community or national scope, questions which is need to determine :

o Language teaching policies
o The underlying reasons for the project
o The impact on different sectors of society.
o Language teaching experience and tradition exist in the country
o View of public to second language and second language teaching
o Academics and teacher trainers
o View of parents and students
o View of employers and the business community
o Community resources

Project Factors
Ω Curriculum projects are typically produced by a team of people.
Ω Projects are completed under different constrains of time, resources, and personnel, and each of these variables can have a significant impact on a project.
Ω The following project factors need to be considered :

o Who constitutes the project group and how are they selected?
o What are the management and other responsibilities of the team?
o The goals and procedures determined
o Who reviews the progress of the project and the performance of its members?
o Experience that members of team can have
o Wow do members of the team regard each other?
o Resources that they have
o The time frame of project

Institutional Factors
Ω A language teaching program is typically delivered in an institution such as a university, school, or language institute. Different types of institutions create their own “culture,” that is, settings where people interact and where patterns emergence for communication, decision making, reole relations, and conduct.
Ω A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups and departments, sometimes functioning in unison, sometimes with different components functioning independently, or sometimes with components in a confrontational relationship.
Ω Institution factors are determined of questions about :

o Leadership
o School’s physical resources including classroom facilities, media, and other technological resources, and library resources.
o Role of the textbooks and other instructional materials
o Staff morale like among English teacher
o Problem that teacher should face
o Administrative support
o How committed is the institution to attaining excellence?


Teacher Factors
Ω Teachers are key factor in the successful implementation of curriculum change.
Ω In any institution, teacher may vary according to the following dimensions: language proficiency, teaching experience, skill and expertise, training and qualifications, morale and motivation, teaching style, and beliefs and principles.
Ω The following teacher factors need to be considered :
o Kinds of teachers currently teach in the target schools, their typical background, training, experience, and motivation.
o Their proficient in English
o What kinds of belief to the teachers typically hold concerning key issues in teaching?
o What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources do they make us of?
o Teaching methods that teachers use
o What benefits are the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, or materials likely to offer teachers?
Learner Factors
Ω Learners are the key participants in the curriculum developments projects and it is essential to collect as much information as possible about them before the project begins.
Ω Among relevant learner factors therefore are following :
o Experience of learners’ language
o Their motivation to learn English
o Their expectation for the program
o Are they homogeneous or heterogeneous group?
o Type of learning approach that they favor
o Type of content that they prefer
o Their expectations they have for the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials
o The time they can be expected
o Learning resources they have to access
Adoption Factors
Ω The following teacher factors need to be considered :
o The advantages of curriculum change
o Is the innovation perceived to be more advantageous than current practices?
o Is the innovation very complicated and difficult to understand?
o Has it been used and tested out in some schools before all schools are expected to use it?
o Have the features and benefits of the innovation been clearly communicated to teachers and institutions?
o How clear and practical is it?
Ω A methodology that can readily be turned into teaching materials and textbooks will generally be easier to adopt than one that exist only as a set guidelines.
Ω The goal of situation analysis is to identify key factors that might positively or negatively affect the implementation of a curriculum plan. This is sometimes known as a SWOT analysis because it involves an examination of “a language program’s internal strength and weaknesses in addition to external opportunities and threats to the existence or successful operation of the language program”.

The origin of Language curriculum development

Harold Palmer, the prominent British applied linguist who laid the foundation for the structure method in the 1920s, summarized the principles of language teaching methodology at that time as follows:
1. Initial Preparation – orienting the students towards language learning
2. Habit-forming – establishing correct habits.
3. Accuracy – avoiding inaccurate language
4. Gradation – each stage prepares the student for the next
5. Proportion – each aspect of language given emphasis
6. Concreteness – movement from the concrete to the abstract
7. Interest – arousing the student’s interest at all times
8. Order of progression – hearing before speaking, and both before writing
9. Multiple line of approach – many different ways used to teach the language.

This came to be known as the problem of selection. Mackey (1965, 161) comments: selection is an inherent Characteristic of all methods. Since it is impossible to teach the whole of language, all methods must in some way or other, whether intentionally or not, select the part of it they intend to teach.” The field of selection in language teaching deals with the choice of appropriate units of the language for teaching purposes and with the development of techniques and procedures by which the language can be reduced to that which is most useful to the learner (Mackey 1965). All teaching, of course, demands choice of what will be taught from the total field of the subject, and the teaching of a language at any level and under any circumstances requires the selection of certain features of the language and the intentional or unintentional exclusion of other. Two aspects of selection received primary attention in the first few decades of the twentieth century: vocabulary selection and grammar selection. Approaches to these aspects of selection laid to the foundation for syllabus design in language teaching
B. VOCABULARY SELECTION
Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of the first things applied linguist turned their attention to. The issue of vocabulary selection is that not all words that native speakers known are useful for language learners who have only a limited time available for learning. In this case, native speakers are thought to have a recognition vocabulary about 17.000 words. How many words that should be student known? It depends on objectives of the course and the amount of time available for teaching. In vocabulary selection, word frequencies are important in planning word lists for language teaching.
The most frequent words occurring in samples of sports writing will not be same as those occurring in fiction. Other important things especially in determining vocabulary or word lists, such as:
 Teachability : by following Direct Method or a method such as Total Physical Response. In this case, concrete vocabulary is taught early on because it can be illustrated easily through pictures or demonstration.
 Similarity : some items may be selected because they are similar to words in the native language. For example, English and French have many cognates such as table, page, notion, etc and this may justify in their inclusion of word list for French-speaking learners.
 Availability : some words may not be frequent but are readily available in the sense that they come quickly to mind when certain topics are thought of. For example, classroom calls to mind desk, chair, teacher, and pupil, and these words can be useful and be worth teaching early in a course.
 Coverage : Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may also be useful. For example, seat might be taught because it includes other meaning like stool, bench, and chair.
 Defining Power : some words could be selected because they are useful in defining other words, even though they are the most frequent words in a language. For example, container might be useful because it can help define bucket, jar, and carton.
C. GRAMMAR SELECTION AND GRADATION
In regard to teaching English, from the 1930s applied linguist began to apply principles of selection to design of gramatical syllabuses. In grammar, selection has closely relation to the issue of gradation. Gradatio is concerne with the grouping and sequencing of teaching items in syllabus. A grammatical syllabus specifies both the set of gramatical structure to be taught and the order in which they should be taught.
The gramatical material must be graded, in accordance with the principles of gradation. The principles as basis for developing gramamatical sylabuses :
1. Simplicity and Centrality
In English learning, we will choose structure that are simple and more central to the basic srtructure of the language than those that are complex and peripheral. These criteria would occure in an introductory level-English course.
2. Learnability
Grammar syllabuses should take in to account the order of grammatical items are found in second language learning. Example, second language learner at different proficiency level:
• Noun
• Verbs
• Adjectives
• Verb be
• Possessive Pronouns
• Personal Pronouns
• Adverb of time
• Request
• Simple Present
• Future
• WH – Question
• Present Continous
• Direction
• Possessive Adjective
• Comperatives
• Offers
• Simple Future
• Simple Past
• Infinitives-gerund
• First conditinal

The approaches to gradation :
1. Linguistic Distance : Structure that are similar to those in the native language should be taught first. This as assumption underlay the approach to language comparison know as Contrastive Analysis
2. Intrinssic Difficulty : this principles argues that simple structure should be taught before complex one and is the commonest criteria used to justify the sequence of grammatical items in a syllabus.
3. communicative need : some strutures will be needed early on and can’t be postponed despite their difficulty, such as the Simple Past in English, since it is difficulty to avoid making reference to past event for very long in a course.
4. Frequency : The frequency of occurrence of structures anf grammatical items in the target language may also affect the order in which they appear in a syllabus, although as we noted, little information of this sort is available to syllabus planners. Frequency may also compete with other criteria.

In addition to these factor namely, a linear or a cylical or Spiral Gradation. With a linear gradation, the items are introduced one at a time and practiced intensively before the next items appear eith a cylical gradation, items are reintroduced throuhout the course.

Assumptions Underlying Early Approaches to Syllabus Design
1. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar
2. Learners everywhere have the same needs
3. Learners’ needs are identified exclusively in terms of language needs
4. The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook
5. The context of teaching is English as a foreign language.